Presentation of the Members

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Born 1954 in Mortsel (Belgium), Koen Lenaerts obtained a law degree in 1977 from Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium) before continuing his studies at Harvard University, USA, where he obtained a Master of Laws in 1978 and a Master in Public Administration in 1979. Returning to Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, he became a Doctor of Laws in 1982.

It was at that same university that he started his professional career in 1979 as a lecturer before becoming a Professor of European Law in 1983. During his university career, he also taught at the College of Europe in Bruges (Belgium) from 1984 to 1989 and as a visiting professor at Harvard Law School, USA, in 1989.

Mr Lenaerts began his career at the Court of Justice as a legal secretary to Judge René Joliet, a post which he held from 1984 to 1985 before working as a lawyer at the Brussels Bar from 1986 to 1989.

He was appointed as a Judge at the Court of First Instance of the European Communities on 25 September 1989, the date on which that newly created court was established. He served in that capacity for more than 14 years before being appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2003. He was elected by his peers to the office of President of Chamber for two successive terms from 9 October 2006 to 8 October 2012 and subsequently to the office of Vice-President of the Court of Justice on 9 October 2012.

He was elected as President of the Court of Justice on 8 October 2015 and has held that office since then.

Born in 1962 in Bedburg/Erft (Germany), Mr Thomas von Danwitz studied at the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn (Rhenish Friedrich Wilhelm University of Bonn, Germany) where he passed the First State Law Examination in 1986, and at the université de Genève (University of Geneva, Switzerland). He wrote a thesis at the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn and was awarded the title of Doctor of Laws in 1988. In 1990, Mr von Danwitz graduated from the École nationale d'administration (National School of Administration, France) with an international diploma in public administration. In 1992, he completed his legal traineeship in Cologne (Germany) with the Second State Law Examination and then, in 1996, he obtained teaching authorisation at the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn where he worked as a research assistant.

Mr von Danwitz focused his research and taught in the field of German public law and European law at the Ruhr-Universität Bochum (Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany) where was a professor from 1996 to 2003 and Dean of the Faculty of Law from 2000 to 2001. From 2003 to 2006, he taught at the Universität zu Köln (University of Cologne, Germany) where he became Director of the Institute of Public Law and Administrative Science in 2006.

His academic career took him to the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University (USA) as a visiting professor in 2000, to the University François Rabelais de Tours (François Rabelais University, Tours, France) between 2001 and 2006, and to the université de Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne (University of Paris I, Panthéon-Sorbonne, France) from 2005 to 2006. In 2005, he completed a teaching and research fellowship at the University of California, Berkeley (USA). In 2004, he joined the Executive Committee of the Association of German Jurists (Ständige Deputation des Deutschen Juristentags) as a member, where he remained engaged until 2014.

Mr von Danwitz was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2006. Having been elected as President of Chamber by his peers, he sat at the Court in that function between 9 October 2012 and 8 October 2018. Mr von Danwitz has been Vice-President of the Court of Justice since 8 October 2024.

Born 1958 in Luxembourg (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg), François Biltgen obtained a master’s degree in law in 1981 and, subsequently, a diploma of advanced studies (DEA) in Community law in 1982 at the université de droit, d’économie et de sciences sociales de l’université de Paris II Panthéon-Assas (University of Law, Economics and Social Sciences of University Paris 2 Panthéon-Assas, France). It was also in 1982 that he graduated from the Institut d’études politiques de Paris (Paris Institute of Political Studies, France).

Admitted to the Bar of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg in 1987, he practised as a lawyer from 1987 to 1999. At the same time, he also pursued a political career as Secretary of the Christian Social Party, a parliamentary group in the Luxembourg Parliament, from 1983 to 1994 and, from 1987 to 1999, as Councillor of the town of Esch-sur-Alzette (Luxembourg), of which he was Deputy Mayor from 1997 to 1999 – a career which led him to be appointed as an Alternate Member of the Luxembourg delegation to the Committee of the Regions of the European Union between 1994 and 1999. Elected as a Member of the Luxembourg Parliament for a term of five years in 1994, he actively participated in legislative activities, in particular as a rapporteur for a number of draft acts of EU law.

Following the general elections in 1999, he was invited to serve in the Luxembourg Government and was responsible for a number of ministries: he was Minister for Labour and Employment, Minister for Religious Affairs, Minister for Relations with Parliament and Minister with responsibility for Communications from 1999 to 2004, then Minister for Labour and Employment, Minister for Religious Affairs and Minister for Culture, Higher Education and Research from 2004 to 2009 and, subsequently, Minister for Justice, Minister for the Civil Service and Administrative Reform, Minister for Higher Education and Research, Minister for Communications and the Media and Minister for Religious Affairs from 2009 to 2013.

The tasks that he performed in his ministerial posts were also reflected in the responsibilities that he held at international level. Accordingly, he chaired a number of configurations of the Council of the European Union in 2005. Mr Biltgen was Joint President of the Ministerial Conference of the Bologna Process in 2005 and 2009 and of the Interministerial Conference of the European Space Agency (ESA) from 2012 to 2013.

Mr Biltgen was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2013, where he has held office as President of Chamber since 8 October 2024.

Born 1962 in Haapsalu (Estonia), Küllike Jürimäe obtained her law degree (equivalent to a master’s degree) at Tartu ülikool (University of Tartu, Estonia) in 1986. She continued her higher education at the Estonian School of Diplomacy, from which she graduated in 1992. In 2003, following a course of study at the Università degli Studi di Padova (University of Padua, Italy) and at the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom, she obtained a European Masters in Human Rights and Democratisation.

She was a public prosecutor in Tallinn (Estonia) for five years from 1986. From 1991 to 1993, she was a legal adviser and then, from 1992 to 1993, General Counsel at Eesti Kaubandus-Tööstuskoda (Estonian Chamber of Commerce and Industry). Between 1993 and 2004, she served as a Judge at the Tallinna Ringkonnakohus (Tallinn Court of Appeal, Estonia).

Ms Jürimäe was appointed as a Judge at the General Court of the European Union on 12 May 2004. She has served as a Judge at the Court of Justice since 23 October 2013 and has been President of Chamber at that court since 8 October 2021.

Born 1964 in Nicosia (Cyprus), Constantinos Lycourgos obtained a law degree in 1985 and, subsequently, a diploma of advanced studies in Community law in 1987 at université Panthéon-Assas Paris II (University Paris 2 Panthéon-Assas, France), the university at which he presented his doctoral thesis in law in 1991.

Admitted as a lawyer in Cyprus in 1993, he worked as a lawyer at the Nicosia Bar until 1996, the year in which he was appointed as a special adviser on European affairs to the Cypriot Minister for Foreign Affairs. He held that post until 1999 and, subsequently, the post of adviser on Community law at the Law Office of the Republic of Cyprus from 1999 to 2002. He was a member of the Cypriot mission responsible for negotiating accession to the European Union between 1998 and 2003 and a member of Greek-Cypriot delegations involved in negotiations for a comprehensive settlement of the Cyprus problem from 2002 to 2014.

His expertise led him to serve as a senior lawyer of the Republic of Cyprus from 2002 to 2007 and, subsequently, as a senior counsel of that State from 2007 to 2014. He was head of the European Union Law Section of the Law Office of the Republic of Cyprus from 2003 to 2014, whilst also representing the Cypriot Government before the Courts of the European Union as an agent from 2004 to 2014.

Mr Lycourgos was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 8 October 2014 and has served as President of Chamber at that court since 8 October 2021.

Mr Irmantas Jarukaitis was born in 1973 in Prienai (Lithuania); he completed a law degree in 1997 and a doctor of laws in 2008 at the Vilniaus universitetas (University of Vilnius, Lithuania). He taught as a lecturer then associate professor at that same university from 1999 to 2018. He undertook other legal research tasks, as shown by his many publications in the fields of European law and constitutional law. Alongside his university roles, he was actively involved in the creation of the Lithuanian Association of European Law, of which he is the cofounder.

In 1997, he began to work for his native country, joining the Department of European Law of the Lithuanian Ministry of Justice; he held the position of Head Specialist, then that of Head of Section from 2002 to 2003 and, from 2004 to 2010, that of Deputy Director-General. Between 2010 and 2018, he carried out jurisdictional duties as a Judge at the Lietuvos vyriausiasis administracinis teismas (Supreme Administrative Court of Lithuania), of which he was the Vice-President from 2012 to 2017. From 2015 to 2017, he was Acting President of that court while sitting at the Teisėjų taryba (Judicial Council, Lithuania).

Mr Jarukaitis was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 8 October 2018, where he has held office as President of Chamber since 8 October 2024.

Born in 1959 in Tarragona (Spain), Ms Maria Lourdes Arastey Sahún studied at the Universitat de Barcelona (University of Barcelona, Spain), where she obtained a law degree in 1983, before taking professional judicial training at the Escuela Judicial (Judicial College, Spain) from 1984 to 1985.

She was appointed as a district judge at the Juzgado de Distrito de Sant Feliu de Llobregat (District Court of Sant Feliu de Llobregat, Spain) and the Juzgado de Distrito de Barcelona (District Court of Barcelona, Spain) from 1985 to 1989. In 1989, she was assigned to the Juzgado de lo Social No 7 de Barcelona (Social Court No 7 of Barcelona, Spain) for one year. She then joined the Social Division of the Tribunal Superior de Justicia de Cataluña (High Court of Justice of Catalonia, Spain) where she remained until 2009. She was appointed to the Tribunal Supremo (Supreme Court, Spain) as a judge in 2009. From 2013 to 2021, she was also a judge at the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Administrative Tribunal (Brussels, Belgium).

In addition to her judicial career, Ms Arastey Sahún was also involved in teaching. From 1998 to 2008, she was an associate professor in Employment and Social Security Law at the Universitat de Barcelona. She was also a lecturer at national judicial schools, in particular in Spain (on a regular basis), Bulgaria (2008) and Romania (2008), and at the Juan Carlos I School for Centroamerica and the Caribbean (2006). Ms Arastey Sahún gave lectures and participated in seminars at numerous universities. She was also a member of several bodies operating, inter alia, in the fields of EU law, training and examination of the competence of judges, and alternative dispute resolution.

Ms Arastey Sahún was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2021, where she has held office as President of Chamber since 8 October 2024.

Born in 1971 in Cracow (Poland), Mr Maciej Szpunar obtained a master's degree in law from the Uniwersytet Śląski (University of Silesia, Poland) in 1995 and from the College of Europe in Bruges (Belgium) in 1996. He presented his doctoral thesis in law in 2000, became a habilitated doctor in legal science in 2009, and then a professor of law in 2013 at the Uniwersytet Śląski. In 1998, his academic work took him to Jesus College, Cambridge (UK) where he was a visiting scholar, then to the University of Liège (Belgium) in 1999, and to the European University Institute in Florence (Italy) in 2003.

In 2001, he joined the Katowice Bar to take up the profession of lawyer, a profession which he practiced until 2008. During that period, he was also a member of the Committee for Private International Law of the Civil Law Codification Commission under the Polish Ministry of Justice.

He was Undersecretary of State in the Office of the Committee for European Integration (Poland) from 2008 to 2009, before joining the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 2010 to 2013. During those three years, he represented the Polish government as an agent in a large number of cases before the Courts of the European Union.

He remains committed to academic research and is a member of the editorial board of a number of legal journals, which also led him to author numerous publications in the fields of European law and private international law.

Mr Szpunar was appointed as an Advocate General at the Court of Justice on 23 October 2013 and has held the position of First Advocate General since 11 October 2018.

Born 1963 in Zagreb (Croatia), Siniša Rodin obtained his law degree from Sveučilište u Zagrebu (University of Zagreb, Croatia) in 1987 and continued his university studies in the United States of America, where he obtained a Master of Laws from the University of Michigan in 1992. Returning to Croatia, he continued his studies at Sveučilište u Zagrebu, where he became a Doctor of Laws in 1995. From 2001 to 2002, he was a Fulbright Fellow and Visiting Scholar at Harvard University, USA.

He began his professional career in 1987 at Sveučilište u Zagrebu as a tenure track professor. Since 2003, he has been a Professor of EU law at Sveučilište u Zagrebu, where, in 2006, he was awarded the Jean Monnet Chair, of which he became an ad personam holder in 2011. In 2012, he became a visiting professor at Cornell Law School, USA. During his university career, Mr Rodin published numerous works that contributed to the dissemination of EU law in Croatia.

Between 2006 and 2011, Mr Rodin was a member of the Croatian team that defined the negotiating framework and the process regarding the accession of Croatia to the European Union whilst also being, from 2009 to 2010, a member of the Croatian Constitutional Amendment Committee and President of the working group on Croatia’s EU membership.

The first Croatian judge to be appointed at the Court of Justice, Mr Rodin has served as a Judge at the Court since 4 July 2013.

Born 1965 in Graz (Austria), Andreas Kumin studied law at Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz (University of Graz, Austria), where he obtained a law degree in 1987 and, subsequently, a doctorate in law in 1990. He was awarded an undergraduate degree in translation by that same university in 1988. It was in connection with his training as a civil servant that he opted in 1991 to continue his studies in France at the École nationale d’administration (ENA) (National School of Administration, France), graduating from the ‘long international cycle in public administration’ in 1992.

He began his professional career in 1990 as a civil servant in the Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, where he worked until 1994, initially in its Legal Service and, subsequently, in the Directorate-General for European and Economic Integration Policy. From 1994 to 2000, he held the post of Counsellor at the Permanent Mission of Austria to the United Nations and the Specialised Agencies in Geneva (Switzerland). From 2000 to 2019, he again worked in the Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, initially as head of the unit ‘Legal issues concerning the first pillar of the European Union’ and, subsequently, from 2005 to 2019, as head of the European Law Department in that ministry.

He authored numerous publications on EU law during an academic career which he began in 2007 as a lecturer in the Department of European Law and Public International Law of Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck (University of Innsbruck, Austria) and which included the post of senior lecturer at the Diplomatische Akademie Wien (Vienna School of International Studies, Austria) from 2012 to 2018 and, since 2014, that of co-organiser of a number of seminars at Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien (Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria). Lastly, he was awarded, for the period from 2014 to 2019, a contract for the post of professor at the Institute of European Law of Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, where he continued to teach as an Honorary Professor in 2020.

Mr Kumin was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 20 March 2019 and has served in that capacity since then.

Born in 1958 in Mikkeli (Finland), Mr Niilo Jääskinen obtained a law degree in 1980 and then, in 1982, a postgraduate law degree from the Helsingin yliopisto (University of Helsinki, Finland). In 2008, he was awarded his doctoral thesis in law at the same university. His interest in teaching became apparent very early; he became a lecturer in law at the Helsingin yliopisto in 1980, a position which he held until 1986.

In 1983, he served as a legal secretary and acting judge at the Rovaniemen kihlakunnanoikeus (District Court, Rovaniemi, Finland) for one year. He was a legal adviser at the Finnish Ministry of Justice from 1987 to 1989 where he subsequently became head of the European Law Section from 1990 to 1995. At the same time, he was a legal adviser at the Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs between 1989 and 1990. As the person responsible for legal and institutional questions, he took part in the negotiations for the accession of the Republic of Finland to the European Union. From 1995 to 2000, he held the positions of an advisor and a clerk for European affairs of the Grand Committee of the Finnish Parliament.

Having been called to the service of the Finnish judiciary, Mr Jääskinen performed the duties of an acting judge at the Korkein hallinto-oikeus (Supreme Administrative Court, Finland) from 2000 to 2002 where he was a judge from 2003 to 2009.

He joined the Court of Justice as Advocate General on 7 October 2009, a position which he held until 7 October 2015. Upon return to his home country, he resumed his duties as a judge at the Korkein hallinto-oikeus from 2015 to 2019 where he was also Vice-President from 2018 to 2019.

On 7 October 2019, Mr Jääskinen was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice, a position which he has held since then.

Born in 1957 in Athens (Greece), Mr Dimitrios Gratsias obtained his master’s degree in law from the Ethniko kai Kapodistriako Panepistimio Athinón (National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece) in 1980 and a diplôme d'études approfondies (diploma of advanced studies, DEA) in public law from the université de Paris I, Panthéon-Sorbonne (University of Paris I, Panthéon-Sorbonne, France) in 1981. The following year, the Centre universitaire d'études communautaires et européennes (Université Paris I) (University Centre for Community and European Studies, University of Paris I, France) awarded him a diploma in Community law.

In 1985, Mr Gratsias began his professional career at the Symvoulio tis Epikrateias (Council of State, Greece) where he worked as a junior officer until 1992. He was subsequently appointed as a junior member in 1992 and then as a member in 2005. In addition to those functions, he was appointed, in 1998, as a supplementary member of the Anotato Eidiko Dikastirio (Superior Special Court, Greece) for two years (1998-1999) and, in 2006, as a member of the Eidiko Dikastirio Agogon Kakodikias (Special Court for Actions against Judges, Greece) for one year. In 2008, he was a member of the Anotato Dikastiko Symvoulio Dioikitikis Dikaiosinis (Supreme Council for Administrative Justice, Greece). During the 2009-2010 judicial year, he was an inspector of administrative courts.

Between 1994 and 1996, Mr Gratsias joined the Court of Justice as a legal secretary in the cabinet of Advocate General Georges Cosmas.

Mr Gratsias was a Judge at the General Court between 25 October 2010 and 6 October 2021 where he also took on the functions of President of Chamber for two successive terms, from 18 September 2013 to 30 September 2019. He has been a Judge at the Court of Justice since 7 October 2021.

Born in 1961 in Zlín (Czechoslovakia), Mr Miroslav Gavalec was first awarded a degree in mechanical engineering in the fields of heat engines and nuclear equipment at the České vysoké učení technické v Praze (Czech Technical University in Prague, Czechoslovakia), and took up various positions in the nuclear sector from 1986 to 1991.

His interest in social sciences led him to study law at the Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave (Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia) from 1990 to 1995, where he was awarded a ‘Magister’ degree in law in 1995 then the title of Doctor of Laws (PhD) in 2010.

In 2001, he was appointed as a commercial and family judge and as an administrative judge at the Okresný súd Bratislava III (District Court, Bratislava III, Slovakia). He served there until 2005, when he joined the Najvyšší súd Slovenskej republiky (Supreme Court of the Slovak Republic), where he served first as a judge of the Administrative Division and, from 2009, as President of the First Chamber of the Administrative Division.

In parallel with his judicial career, Mr Gavalec established himself as a university lecturer. Between 2005 and 2011, he taught at the Institute of Economics and Management of the Paneurópska vysoká škola (Pan-European University, Slovakia).From 2006 to 2014 he lectured at the Institutes of Administrative Law and Private Law of the Paneurópska vysoká škola.

Mr Gavalec was a member of the European Union Forum of Judges for the Environment from 2005 to 2020, and a member of the European Association of Administrative Judges from 2006 to 2015.

Mr Gavalec was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2021.

Born in 1957 in Frankfurt am Main (Germany), Ms Juliane Kokott studied law at the Universität Bonn (University of Bonn, Germany) and at the University of Geneva (Switzerland) from 1976 to 1982. She was awarded a Fulbright scholarship and went on to complete an L.L.M at the American University, Washington DC (United States) in 1983. On her return to Europe she obtained a doctorate in law from the Universität Heidelberg (University of Heidelberg, Germany) in 1985, then from Harvard University (United States) in 1990. In addition, in 1985, she was awarded a diploma from the Académie Internationale de Droit Constitutionnel which is based in Tunis.

Ms Kokott began her academic career in 1991 as Visiting Professor at the University of California, Berkeley (United States). She then pursued her academic career in Germany, where she was a Professor of German and Foreign Public Law, International Law and European Law at the Universität Augsburg (University of Augsburg) in 1992, at the University of Heidelberg in 1993 and at the Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf (University Heinrich Heine, Düsseldorf) from 1994 to 1999. In 1999, she was awarded a professorship at the Universität St. Gallen (University of Saint Gallen, Switzerland), where she taught courses in international law, international business law and European law. In 2000, she was appointed as Director of the Institute for European and International Business Law at the University of St. Gallen and, from 2001 to 2003, Deputy Director of the Master of Business Law programme at the same university.

She then worked for the German government, which, in 1995, appointed her as an alternate judge to the international Court of Conciliation and Arbitration of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Until 2003, she was Deputy Chairwoman of the Wissenschaftliche Beirat ‘Globale Umweltveränderungen’ der Bundesregierung (WBGU) (Federal Government Advisory Council on Global Environmental Change, Germany).

Ms Kokott was appointed as an Advocate General at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2003. She has served as first Advocate General from 2006 to 2007.

Born 1949 in Blagoevgrad (Bulgaria), Alexander Arabadjiev studied law at Sofiyski universitet ‘Sv. Kliment Ohridski’ (Sofia University ‘St Kliment Ohridski’, Bulgaria), from which he graduated in 1972.

In 1975, he was appointed as a judge at the Rayonen sad Blagoevgrad (District Court, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria) and served in that capacity until 1983, the year in which he joined the Okrazhen sad Blagoevgrad (Regional Court, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria), where he held office until 1986. He then served at the Varhoven sad (Supreme Court, Bulgaria) between 1986 and 1991 and at the Konstitutsionen sad (Constitutional Court, Bulgaria) from 1991 to 2000. He was a member of the European Commission of Human Rights from 1997 to 1999.

Between 2001 and 2006, he temporarily interrupted his legal career in order to devote himself to the process of Bulgaria’s accession to the European Union, a process in which he actively participated as a Member of the Bulgarian Parliament and as an observer at the European Parliament from August 2005 to December 2006. From 2002 to 2003, he was involved in the drawing up of policy responses to the future challenges for the European Union in the context of the 2004 enlargement as a member of the Convention on the Future of Europe.

On 12 January 2007, a few days after Bulgaria’s accession to the European Union, Mr Arabadjiev was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice and has served in that capacity since then. Elected as President of Chamber by his peers, he held that office at the Court between 9 October 2018 and 7 October 2024.

Born 1952 in Kilcoon (Ireland), Eugene Regan studied at University College Dublin, Ireland, where he obtained a degree in politics and economics in 1974 and a master’s degree in political economy in 1975. He completed his university education with a master’s degree in international law and comparative law from the Université libre de Bruxelles (Free University of Brussels, Belgium) in 1979.

In 1975, he spent one year as an economist at the Irish Farmers’ Association (IFA), Dublin. From 1975 to 1979, he carried out a number of activities related to the protection of the Irish agricultural sectors as Director of the Office of the IFA at the European Economic Community. He served as Chief Executive of the Irish Meat Exporters Association (Ireland) from 1980 to 1984. After being a policy adviser to Peter Sutherland, the Commissioner for Competition in the European Commission, between 1985 and 1988, he returned to the agricultural sector as Director and General Manager of a major player in the Irish meat trade market from 1989 to 1995.

Mr Regan has been a Barrister at the Honorable Society of King’s Inns (Dublin) since 1985, practising at the Bar of Ireland in that capacity from 1995 to 2005 and, subsequently, as a Senior Counsel from 2005 to 2015. From 2007 to 2011, he was also a member of the Seanad (Senate, Ireland).

Mr Regan was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2015. He was elected by his peers as President of Chamber and served in that capacity between 9 October 2018 and 7 October 2024.

Born in 1957 in Sintra (Portugal), Mr Nuno Piçarra studied law at the Universidade de Lisboa (University of Lisbon, Portugal) from which he graduated in 1980 and where he obtained Master of Laws in 1986. He later wrote a thesis at the Faculty of Law at the Universidade Nova de Lisboa (New University of Lisbon, Portugal) where he obtained, in 2003, a doctorate in law.

In the course of his academic career, he was firstly a lecturer in law at the Faculty of Law at the Universidade de Lisboa between 1981 and 1986, and then a visiting professor at the Institute of European Studies of the Universität des Saarlandes (Saarland University, Germany) from 1987 to 1996. At the Universidade Nova de Lisboa, he was an assistant professor of law from 2003 to 2008 and an associate professor of law from 2008 to 2018. He also taught as a visiting professor at the Universidad Pontificia Comillas (Comillas Pontifical University, Spain) from 2014 to 2018. His commitment to scientific research is reflected by his numerous publications in the fields of constitutional law and EU law, particularly on the area of freedom, security and justice; on the free movement of persons; and on institutional law.

Mr Piçarra joined the Court of Justice for the first time in 1986. He worked as a lawyer-linguist until 1987 and then as a lawyer-reviser from 1987 to 1990. He became a legal secretary in 1990 when he joined the Court of First Instance in the cabinet of President José Luís da Cruz Vilaça, with whom he worked until 1995, before joining the cabinet of Judge Rui Manuel Gens de Moura Ramos until 1996.

From 1996 to 1999, the government of his home country entrusted him with the role of a national coordinator for matters concerning free movement of persons in the European area at the Portuguese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and of a member of the K4 Committee of the Council and of the Central Group of the permanent consultation structure of the Schengen agreements.

He was appointed as a Portuguese member of the FreSsco network of independent experts in the fields of free movement of workers and social security coordination within the European Union and, from 2004 to 2018, as a member of the Odysseus academic network for legal studies on immigration and asylum in Europe. From 2015 to 2018, he was also a member of the Management Board of the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights in Vienna (Austria).

Mr Piçarra was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 8 October 2018, a position which he has held since then.

Born in 1953 in Athens (Greece), Mr Athanasios Rantos obtained a degree in law from the Panepistimio Athinon (University of Athens, Greece) in 1976 and completed his studies with a master's degree with a specialisation in European law from the Université Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium) in 1990. In 1992, he became a Fellow of the International Institute of Human Rights (working both in Geneva (Switzerland) and Strasbourg (France)).

In 1978, he practised as a lawyer at the Athens Bar for one year before joining the Symvoulio tis Epikrateias (Council of State, Greece) where, between 1979 and 2020, he held, successively, the positions of a junior officer, junior member, member, Vice-President and then President. From 2000 to 2020, he was a member of the Anotato Eidiko Dikastirio (Superior Special Court, Greece) and, from 2011 to 2020, President of the Eidiko Dikastirio Agogon Kakodikias (Special Court for Actions against Judges, Greece). From 1996 to 2020, he was a member and then President of the Anotato Symvoulio Dioikitikis Dikaiosynis (Supreme Council for Administrative Justice, Greece). From 2011 to 2020, he was also President of the Peitharchiko Symvoulio Melon Didaktikou Ereunitikou Prosopikou ton Anotaton Ekpaideutikon Idrymaton (Disciplinary Council for Teachers in Further Education Institutions, Greece).

In addition to his judicial duties, Mr Rantos was President of a number of Legislative Drafting Committees. He was also a member of the Κentriki Nomoparaskeuastiki Epitropi (Central Legislative Drafting Committee, Greece). His interest in teaching also led him to teach European law and Administrative law at the Ethniki Scholi Dimosias Dioikisis (National School of Public Administration, Greece) from 1990 to 1994 as well as at the Ethniki Scholi Dikastikon Leitourgon (National School of Judicial Officers, Greece) from 1995 to 2016. His reflections on various legal matters gave rise to numerous research projects, the majority of which has been published.

Mr Rantos was appointed as an Advocate General at the Court of Justice on 10 September 2020, a position which he has held since then.

Ms Ineta Ziemele was born in 1970 in Jelgava; she obtained a law degree from the Latvijas Universitāte (University of Latvia) in 1993, which she supplemented that year by a postgraduate study of the American legal system, the law and politics of the European Communities and political science (University of Aarhus, Denmark). She went on to obtain a Masters in international law at the Lunds Universitet (University of Lund, Sweden) in 1994 and completed her studies at Cambridge University, where she received her PhD in law in 1999.

She began her professional career as a parliamentary assistant at the Latvian Parliament from 1990 to 1992, before working as a consultant to the Foreign Affairs committee of the Republic of Latvia from 1992 to 1995. She was appointed as an adviser to the Prime Minister of Latvia in 1995 and held the same position at the Human Rights Directorate General of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg (France) from 1999 to 2001.

Moreover, Ms Ziemele taught from 1993 as a university assistant in the Legal and Political Theory Department and the International Law and Law of the Sea Department and in International Law and European Law at the Latvijas Universitāte. She went on to work as a lecturer in International Law and European Law until 1999, while she founded the Human Rights Institute, of which she was the director also until 1999, at the Latvijas Universitāte. She was the 'Söderberg' Professor, then visiting professor at the Rīgas Juridiskā augstskola (Riga Graduate School of Law, Latvia), where she held the position of International Law and Human Rights Law professor from 2001. From 2001 to 2005, she also taught at the Raoul Wallenberg Institute at the University of Lund as a visiting professor.

Ms Ziemele’s career in the judiciary began in 2005 with her appointment as a judge at the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, where she also held the position of President of Chamber until 2014. She was appointed as a judge at the Latvijas Republikas Satversmes tiesa (Constitutional Court, Latvia) in 2015 and served as its President from 2017 to 2020.

From 2017 she held the position of corresponding Member of the Academy of Science of Latvia to which she contributed though her legal research, resulting in numerous publications.

Ms Ziemele was appointed as a judge at the Court of Justice on 6 October 2020, a position she has held since then.

Born in 1965 in Budapest (Hungary), Mr Zoltán Csehi was awarded a law degree from Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem (Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary) in 1990 and a Master of Laws degree from Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg (Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg, Germany) in 1991. He pursued doctoral studies at Eötvös Loránd University, and defended his thesis in law in 2004. He also graduated in history of art from Eötvös Loránd University in 1992.

He was admitted to the Budapest Bar and worked as a lawyer in Hungary from 1995 to 2016. In parallel with his activity as a lawyer, he was appointed as an arbitrator at the Pénz és Tőkepiaci Állandó Választottbíróság (Permanent Arbitration Court attached to the Hungarian Stock Exchange) and as an ad hoc arbitrator, from 2004 to 2016.

Additionally, Mr. Csehi taught law as an associate professor from 1991 to 2005, and as a full professor at Eötvös Loránd University from 2005 to 2016. He also lectured at the Pázmány Péter Katolikus Egyetem (Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Hungary), as Head of the  Department of Commercial Law from 2007 to 2013, and as a professor from 2013 onwards. There he then took up the position of Head of the Department of Private and Commercial Law from 2013 to 2016, Research Professor of Private and Commercial Law from 2017 onwards, and Head of the Department of Civil Law in 2018. He has been a visiting professor at the Université catholique de Lyon (Catholic University of Lyon, France) since 2013.

Mr Csehi was appointed as a Judge at the General Court on 13 April 2016, where he sat for five years before he was appointed as a Member of the Court of Justice on 7 October 2021.

Born in 1967 in Vălenii de Munte (Romania), Ms Octavia Spineanu-Matei obtained a law degree (merit diploma) from the Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iași (Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iași, Romania) in 1990 and a doctorate in law from the Academia de Poliție ‘Alexandru Ioan Cuza’ (Alexandru Ioan Cuza Police Academy, Romania) in 1999.

In 1991, she started her professional career as a judge at the Judecătoria sectorului 4 București (Court of First Instance, Sector 4, Bucharest, Romania) and served there until 1996. From 1996 to 1999, she was a judge at the Tribunalul București (District Court, Bucharest, Romania), where she was president of the civil section between 1997 and 1999. After having presided at the Curtea de Apel București (Court of Appeal, Bucharest, Romania) as a judge from 1999 to 2005, and as a president of the civil section from 1999 to 2003, she was appointed as a judge at the Înalta Curte de Casație și Justiție (High Court of Cassation and Justice of Romania) from 2006 to 2016.

From 2006 to 2016, Ms Spineanu-Matei was appointed as an External Member of the Enlarged Board of Appeal of the European Patent Office in Munich, Germany.

After 1997, she also dedicated herself to the training of Romanian magistrates and trainee judges as a trainer at the Institutul Național al Magistraturii (National Institute of the Magistracy, Romania), where she was also a member of the Scientific Council and then, from 2011 to 2016, a director. In addition, she served on the Board of Governors of the Școala Națională de Grefieri (National School for Registrars, Romania). From 2012 to 2016, she was a Board Member of the Doctoral School of the Universitatea din București (University of Bucharest, Romania). She co-authored several books and authored numerous articles in the legal field and she regularly spoke at national and international conferences.

Ms Spineanu-Matei was appointed as a Judge at the General Court on 19 September 2016. She served at the General Court for five years before being appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2021.

Born in 1971 in Jelgava (Latvia), Ms Laila Medina studied at the IMO International Maritime Law Institute (Malta) where she obtained a master’s degree in international maritime law in 1995. She was subsequently awarded a master’s degree in European law in 2002 at the Rīgas Juridiskā augstskola (Riga Graduate School of Law, Latvia).

In 1995, she joined the Latvian Ministry of Transport as Head of the Legal Division and Deputy Director of the Maritime Department. She served in that capacity until 2002, when she was appointed as Adviser to the Secretary of State for European Affairs at the Ministry.

From 2004 to 2005, Ms Medina held the position of Deputy Head of the European Affairs Office at the State Chancellery of the Republic of Latvia.

In 2005, she joined the Latvian Ministry of Justice as Director of the Policy Planning Department. From 2006, she was Deputy State Secretary for Sector Policy in the Ministry of Justice, then Deputy State Secretary for Legal Policy from 2009 to 2021.

Ms Medina’s career also includes teaching activities. Between 1998 and 2006, she was a lecturer in European law and European institutional law at the Valsts administrācijas skola (School of Public Administration, Latvia). In 2012, she provided training to judges and notaries on the Rome III Regulation. Finally, since 2008, she has been a board member of the Law Faculty of the Biznesa augstskola Turība (‘Turība’ Business School, Latvia).

Ms Medina was appointed as an Advocate General at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2021.

Born in 1960 in The Hague (Netherlands), Mr Bernardus (Ben) Maria Polycarpus Smulders obtained a Master of Laws from the Universiteit Leiden (Leiden University, Netherlands) in 1983. He continued his studies at the London School of Economics and Political Science (United Kingdom) where he obtained a Master of Laws in 1984. In 2010, he attended training at the London Business School (United Kingdom), in 2011 at INSEAD Fontainebleau (INSEAD Business School, France) and in 2018 at the Stanford Graduate School of Business (USA).

In 1985, Mr Smulders started his professional career as a lawyer at the Amsterdam Bar, a position he held until 1990.

He joined the European Commission’s Legal Service in 1991, where he worked until 1994 in the ‘Free movement of capital, freedom of establishment, freedom to provide services, taxation, customs union and economic and monetary union’ team and the ‘State aid control and anti-dumping’ team.

Mr Smulders continued his career at the Commission as a member of the cabinet of the Commissioner for External Relations and Enlargement, Mr Hans van den Broek (from 1995 to 1999), of the Commissioner for the Internal Market, Taxation and Customs Union, Mr Frits Bolkestein (from 1999 to2000) and of the President, Mr Romano Prodi (from 2000 to 2004). From 2004 to 2008, he was Head of Cabinet to the Commissioner for Competition, Ms Neelie Kroes, then Principal Legal Adviser, as Director, to the ‘Institutions and economic and monetary union’ team in the Commission’s Legal Service (from 2008 to 2014). He became Head of Cabinet of the First Vice-President of the Commission, Mr Frans Timmermans (from 2014 to 2019), then Senior Legal Adviser, as Director, to the ‘World trade organisation and trade policy’ team of the Commission’s Legal Service (from 2020 to 2022). From 2022 to 2024, he was Deputy Director-General in the Commission’s Directorate-General for Competition where he was responsible for State aid control.

Since 2012, he has occasionally acted as a substitute Judge at the civil and commercial chamber of the Gerechtshof Den Haag (Court of Appeal, The Hague, Netherlands), dealing in particular with cases concerning State liability for infringements of EU law, public international law or issues of immunity from execution of third countries. He has also dedicated himself to an academic career, primarily in international and European law, as a lecturer at the Fondazione Collegio Europeo di Parma (European College of Parma, Italy) since 2003 and at the université Paris-Panthéon-Assas (Paris 2 Panthéon-Assas University, France) since 2019, and as a visiting professor at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Free University of Brussels, Belgium) as well as at the Collège d'Europe de Bruges (College of Europe, Bruges, Belgium) since 2013. He also taught at the Universiteit van Amsterdam (University of Amsterdam, Netherlands) and the Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen (Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands) from 1994 to 2005. From 2002 to 2022, Mr Smulders was a member and then Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Europa Instituut at the Faculty of Law of the Universiteit Leiden. From 2008 to 2024, he was a member of the editorial board of the Common Market Law Review.

He is the author of numerous books and articles, particularly in the areas of competition law, institutional law, protection of the rule of law, the internal market and the economic and Monetary union.

Mr Smulders was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2024.

Born in 1962 in Luxembourg (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg), Mr Dean Spielmann graduated in law in 1988 from the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium) before continuing his studies at the Fitzwilliam College, University of Cambridge (United Kingdom), where he obtained the title of Master of Laws in 1990.

He practised as a lawyer at the Luxembourg Bar from 1989 to 2004 and also pursued an academic career in teaching criminal law, human rights law and procedural law before the European Court of Human Rights, amongst other subjects. From 1991 to 1997, he held the position of research assistant at the Catholic University of Louvain and of associate lecturer at the University of Luxembourg from 1996 to 2006. Between 1997 and 2009, he was also a lecturer at the Université Nancy II (France) and, in 2017 and 2018, he taught at the Institut d'études politiques, Paris (France).

In addition, he is the author of numerous publications and articles and a member of scientific editorial committees of several legal journals.

In 2000, he served as a member of the Advisory Commission on Human Rights in Luxembourg, within which he serveduntil 2004. In addition, between 2002 and 2004, he was a member of the committees for human rights and criminal law of the Council of Bars and Law Societies of Europe (CCBE), but also of the European Union Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights.

Appointed as a Judge at the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg (France) in 2004, he successively became Section President in 2011, Vice-President in 2012, then President between 2012 and 2015.

Mr Spielmann was appointed as a Judge at the General Court on 13 April 2016 and served as President of Chamber between 30 September 2019 and 6 October 2024.

He has been an Advocate General at the Court of Justice since 7 October 2024.

Born in 1964 in Biella (Italy), Mr Massimo Condinanzi obtained his undergraduate law degree in 1988 from the Università degli Studi di Genova (University of Genoa, Italy). In 1993, he obtained a doctorate in European Communities law from the Università degli Studi di Bologna (University of Bologna, Italy).

Mr Condinanzi began his academic career in 1990 as an assistant for teaching and scientific activities at the institute of international law for the law faculty of the Università degli Studi di Milano (University of Milan, Italy); a position he held until 1996. From 1996 to 1998, he held the researcher post in international law within the same faculty.

In 1997, he joined the Court of Justice of the European Communities as a legal secretary, first with Advocate General Giuseppe Tesauro and then with Advocate General Antonio Saggio.

On his return to Italy in 1998, as an associate professor, he taught international law at the Università di Bologna and European Union law at the Piacenza campus of the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Italy), at the Università degli Studi di Genova and at the faculty of law of the Università degli Studi di Milano. It was at that faculty that he became a tenured professor of European Union law in 2005, a position he has held ever since as Chair of European Union law and Chair of European Union litigation. Between 2014 and 2018, still at the same faculty, he was the coordinator of the international law and EU law section of the department of Italian public law and supranational law. He was a guest lecturer at the université Paris-Panthéon-Assas (Paris-Panthéon-Assas University, France), université Montesquieu Bordeaux IV (University of Montesquieu Bordeaux IV, France), Universitatea ‘Alexandru Ioan Cuza’ din Iași (Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Romania) and the université de Genève (University of Geneva, Switzerland). He has been a member and rapporteur of thesis juries, particularly in respect of European Union litigation, at a number of European universities.

He has always been interested in European Union litigation law, and, in 2023, he founded the Review of European litigation. He is the director of this review.

From 2016 to 2018 and from 2019 to 2023, he coordinated the Office for the resolution of infringement proceedings at the Presidency of the Council of Ministers of the Italian Republic.

From 2005 to 2024, he also practised as a lawyer at the Biella and Milan Bars, in which capacity he was involved in numerous cases before the EU courts.

Alongside these activities, he was a member of the Board of the Academy of European Law in Trier (ERA, Germany) as well as a lecturer and an expert instructor at the Scuola Superiore della Magistratura (School for the Judiciary, Italy).

Mr Condinanzi is the author of numerous books and articles, particularly on European Union law, and has taken part, often as organiser, in many national and international legal conferences. In 2017, he helped coordinate the drafting of the first Italian ‘article-by-article’ commentary on the procedural rules of the European Courts. Between 2017 and 2023, he was also coordinator of a research group carrying out a research programme of national interest (PRIN 2017) entitled ‘Dove va l'Europa? (‘Where is Europe going?’)’.

Mr Condinanzi was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice from 7 October 2024.

Born in 1964 in Stockholm (Sweden), Mr Fredrik Schalin obtained, in 1991, a degree in law from the Stockholms universitet (University of Stockholm, Sweden) and, in 1990, a degree in law, followed, in 1994, by a postgraduate degree in Community and European law from the université de Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne (Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University, France).

He started his professional career as a Legal Secretary at the Södertälje tingsrätt (Södertälje District Court, Sweden) from 1991 to 1993 and then at the Svea hovrätt (Court of Appeal sitting in Stockholm, Sweden) from 1994 to 1995. He served as a judge at the Gotlands tingsrätt (Gotland District Court, Sweden) and at the Norrtälje tingsrätt (Norrtälje District Court, Sweden) from 1995 to 1996, as well as at the Svea hovrätt from 1996 to 1997.

In 1997, he worked an assistant secretary of the Parliamentary Committee of the Swedish Ministry of Finance, before being appointed as Legal Adviser for European Affairs at the Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1999.

He joined the Court of Justice as a Legal Secretary to Judge Hans Ragnemalm in 1998 and then served as a Legal Secretary to Judge Stig von Bahr from 1999 to 2006.

Upon return to his home country, Mr Schalin worked, from 2006 to 2008, as a lawyer and, following his admission to the Stockholm Bar in 2008, as an advocate. In 2009, he returned to the judiciary as a judge and then as President of Chamber at the Södertörns tingsrätt (Södertörn District Court, Sweden), where he served until 2016.

He also taught as a lecturer at the Stockholms universitet from 2006 to 2008 and, since 2011, at the Domstolsakademin (Swedish Judicial Training Academy).

Mr Schalin was appointed as a Judge at the General Court on 8 June 2016 and served as President of Chamber between 19 September 2022 and 6 October 2024.

He has been a Judge at the Court of Justice since 7 October 2024.

Born in 1965 in Florence (Italy), Andrea Biondi studied at the Università degli Studi di Firenze (University of Florence, Italy), where he obtained a master’s degree in law in 1990, followed by a doctorate in comparative law in 1996.

He began his academic career at University College London (United Kingdom) in 1993, then moved to the University of Birmingham (United Kingdom) between 1994 and 1997. In 1997, he joined King’s College London (United Kingdom), where he became professor of European Union law in 2006, a post he has held ever since. From 2001 to 2024, he was also Director of the Centre for European Law at King’s College London.

Throughout his career, Mr Biondi has regularly taught as a guest lecturer at renowned universities, including the Libera Università Internazionale degli Studi Sociali Guido Carli ‘LUISS’ (Free International University of Social Studies Guido Carli, Italy), the Università Bocconi (Bocconi University, Italy), Università degli Studi di Roma ‘La Sapienza’ (University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’, Italy), Freie Universität Berlin (Free University of Berlin, Germany), université Paris II Panthéon-Assas (University of Paris II Panthéon-Assas, France), Georgetown University (United States) and the College of Europe campus in Natolin (Poland).

In 2021, he was appointed Vice-Chair of the Board of Appeal of the European Union Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators (ACER).

Mr Biondi was admitted to the Italian Bar in 2001 and worked for two law firms in London as an expert adviser between 2003 and 2024.

He is the author of numerous books and publications, in particular on EU law.

Mr Biondi was appointed as an Advocate General at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2024.

Born 1967 in Voiron (France), Stéphane Gervasoni graduated from the Institut d’études politiques (IEP) de Grenoble (Grenoble Institute of Political Studies, France) in 1988 and from the École nationale d’administration (ENA) (National School of Administration, France) in 1993 (Léon Gambetta graduation class).

He began his professional career in 1993 as a junior officer at the Conseil d’État (Council of State, Paris, France), where he subsequently became a master of petitions from 1996 (holding that office until 2008, the year in which he was appointed as a conseiller d’État (Councillor of State)). In the former role, he was a Judge-Rapporteur in the Litigation Division until 1997 and, in the latter role, a member of the Social Affairs Division (from 1996 to 1997). At the same time, he was a commissaire du gouvernement (Government commissioner) in the Special Committee on Pensions from 1994 to 1996 – a committee which was, at the time, temporarily attached to the Conseil d’État – and a legal adviser to the French Ministry of the Civil Service and to the City of Paris from 1995 to 1997.

In 1997, Mr Gervasoni joined the Prefecture of the Département of the Yonne (France) as Secretary-General, a position which he combined with that of Sub-Prefect of the District of Auxerre until 1999. He then joined the Prefecture of the Département of Savoie (France), where he held the office of Secretary-General and that of Sub-Prefect of the District of Chambéry (France) from 1999 to 2001.

The duties that Mr Gervasoni performed in the Conseil d’État and in public administration led him to the Court of Justice of the European Communities, where he was a legal secretary to Judge Jean-Pierre Puissochet from 2001 to 2005. He was appointed as a Judge at the European Union Civil Service Tribunal on 5 October 2005, the date on which that newly created court was established. He served at that Court until 6 October 2011, including as President of Chamber between 6 October 2008 and 6 October 2011.

Returning to the Conseil d’État, Mr Gervasoni was Deputy President of the Eighth Chamber of the Litigation Division from 2011 to 2013.

He has also been involved in teaching, holding the post of senior lecturer at the Institut d’études politiques (IEP) de Paris (Paris Institute of Political Studies, France) from 1993 to 1995 and at the University of Luxembourg since 2016. In addition, he was a full member of the Appeals Board of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) from 2001 to 2005 and a member of the Appeals Board of the European Space Agency (ESA) from 2011 to 2013.

Mr Gervasoni was appointed as a Judge at the General Court on 16 September 2013. He was elected twice by his peers as President of Chamber, an office that he held from 21 September 2016 to 19 September 2022.

Born in 1968 in Copenhagen, Mr Niels Fenger obtained his law degree in 1992 at the Københavns Universitet (University of Copenhagen, Denmark) and his doctorate in law in 2004 at Aarhus Universitet (Aarhus University, Denmark).

He began his professional career at the Danish Ministry of Justice, where he was Head of Section at the European Union Law Office from 1992 to 1993 and at the Civil Law Office from 1993 to 1994. In 1994, he joined the Court of Justice of the European Union as a legal secretary in the cabinet of Advocate General Michael Bendik Elmer.

On his return to Denmark in 1995, he taught, as a researcher, administrative law and EU law at the Københavns Universitet. Between 1996 and 2000, he returned to the Danish Ministry of Justice as Head of Section at the Constitutional and Administrative Law Office.

In 2001, he joined the Danish Ministry of the Interior as Head of Office where he was responsible for monitoring the legality of municipal decisions relating to trade and the environment. In 2002, he was appointed Director of the legal department of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Surveillance Authority, a post he held until 2009, representing that institution before the Court of Justice of the European Union and the EFTA Court.

He was a professor of administrative law at the Københavns Universitet from 2009, a post which he held until 2017. He is the author of several books and numerous articles on EU law, administrative law and the procedural rules of the Danish courts.

From 2014 to 2015, then from 2017 to 2019, he was a judge at the Østre Landsret (High Court of Eastern Denmark).

From 2014 to 2016, he was also a member of the Danish committee responsible for ruling on the admissibility of appeals in civil and criminal matters.

From 2019 to 2024, Mr Fenger held the post of Danish Parliamentary Ombudsman.

Mr Fenger was appointed as a Judge at the Court of Justice on 7 October 2024.

Born in 1971 in Malta and a native of Żejtun (Malta), Ramona Frendo obtained a law degree at the Università ta’Malta (University of Malta) in 1993 and a doctorate in law at that university in 1995. She continued her studies at the University of Cambridge (United Kingdom), which awarded her an M.Phil. in criminology in 1996. In 2018, she completed her university education with a postgraduate degree in European law at King’s College London (United Kingdom).

Ms Frendo began her career as a lawyer at the Maltese bar, a profession she exercised from 1996 to 2019. Her multidisciplinary knowledge also led her to work as a legal advisor in the Maltese Ministry of Social Protection from 1997 to 1998 and as a legal expert at the courts of Valetta (Malta) between 1997 and 2019 and in a number of insurance companies from 2006 to 2019.

She was a member of the national panel of arbitrators of Malta from 2006 to 2019 and of the Employment Commission of Malta from 2009 to 2019. She was a member of the National Family Commission (Malta) from 2012 to 2013 – the year in which she also served on the Commission for the Holistic Reform of the Justice System (Malta) – and, subsequently, a member of the Law Commission (Malta) between 2014 and 2016. After being appointed by the Maltese Government as a special advisor to the Visa Working Party of the Council of the European Union in 2016, she was Chairwoman of that working party during the Maltese Presidency of the Council in the first half of 2017.

Ms Frendo was appointed as a Judge at the General Court on 20 March 2019. She served at the General Court for five years before being appointed, on 7 October 2024, to her current role as a Judge at the Court of Justice.

Born in 1979 in Klaipėda (Lithuania), Mr Rimvydas Norkus obtained a master’s degree in law at the Vilniaus universitetas (University of Vilnius, Lithuania) in 2001. He then began to study for a doctorate in law at the Mykolo Romerio universitetas (Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania) and defended his thesis there in 2005.

He began his professional career as a law clerk at the Lietuvos apeliacinis teismas (Court of Appeal of Lithuania) from 1999 to 2000, and took on the duties of adviser to the President of that court from 2000 to 2003. Between 2003 and 2009, he was appointed Director of the Judicial Practice Department of the Lithuaniadu Lietuvos vyriausiasis administracinis teismas (Supreme Administrative Court of Lithuania).

From 2009 to 2010, he was a lawyer-linguist at the European Parliament before returning to his native country to take up the position of Director of the Legal Research Department of the Lietuvos Aukščiausiasis Teismas (Supreme Court of Lithuania) from 2010 to 2012. He was appointed as a judge at the Lietuvos apeliacinis teismas from 2012 to 2013 and then served in that capacity for one year at the Lietuvos Aukščiausiasis Teismas, of which he was President from 2014 to 2019. In addition, he was President of the Lietuvos Teisėjų taryba (Judicial Council of Lithuania) from 2016 to 2018.

From 2007 to 2008, Mr Rimvydas Norkus also focussed on teaching, as associate professor at the Mykolo Romerio universitetas, where he was professor at the Institute of Private Law from 2012 to 2019. He is also the author of numerous legal publications.

Born 1961 in Valencia (Spain), Alfredo Calot Escobar studied at the Universidad de Valencia (University of Valencia, Spain), where he obtained a law degree in 1984.

In January 1986, he was recruited by the Council of the Chambers of Commerce of the Autonomous Community of Valencia as a business analyst at the Commercial Office of Spain in Toronto (Canada), where he worked until his entry into service at the Court of Justice of the European Communities on 16 July 1986, which he joined after passing an open competition to fill the first Spanish lawyer-linguist posts in the Directorate for Translation.

In 1990, he was promoted to the post of lawyer-reviser, a post which he held until 1993, when he joined the Court’s Press and Information Service.

In 1995, he passed a new open competition for administrators organised by the European Parliament, which allowed him to join the Secretariat of the Institutional Affairs Committee, where he was responsible for preparing various legal reports for Members, in particular in connection with the Intergovernmental Conference that preceded the conclusion of the Treaty of Amsterdam.

In 1996, he was invited to join the Chambers of the Registrar of the Court of Justice, where he held the post of aide until 1999, when he was appointed as a legal secretary to Advocate General Dámaso Ruiz-Jarabo Colomer.

Such was the varied nature of his professional experience that he re-joined the Court’s translation service in 2000 as Head of the Spanish Translation Division, which he had helped establish 14 years earlier.

In 2001, he was appointed as Director of Translation at a key moment in the history of multilingualism, since preparations were being made for the enlargement of the European Union to include 10 new Member States and, with that, the near doubling of the number of official languages from 11 to 20.

Following a change in the structure of the institution’s administrative services, Mr Calot Escobar was appointed as Director-General of Translation in June 2007.

On 6 October 2010, he was elected as Registrar of the Court of Justice and has served in that capacity since then following the extension of his term of office in 2022, when his second term of office ended.